2  Domestication of Farm Animals

2.1 Origins of beef

Beef - more than one species. In the developed countries, beef is mostly produced from cattle of the genus Bos.  However, there are several other genera  which will interbreed with Bos to produce fertile, beefy offspring: Bison;  Poephagus, the yak; Bibos, the gaurs; Bubalus, the Indian buffalo; Sunda; and Syncerus, the African buffalo.

In Canada, our interest is in the main evolutionary steps from Bos primigenius (wild cattle of ancient Europe, now extinct), to Bos longifrons (the first domesticated cattle leaving fossils found in archaeological excavations), to Bos taurus (modern cattle).

  African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) come in several sizes, ranging from the dwarf forest buffalo of West and Central Africa to the heavy Cape buffalo of South Africa. For bulls and cows, respectively, carcass weights of 380 and 326 kg have been recorded, with dressing percentages up to about 50%. 

Yak. The domesticated yak of China and Mongolia is Poephagus (also known as Bos grunniens). The wild yak may be called Bos mutus. The domesticated yak of Asia is smaller (maximum around 550 kg live weight for bulls and 350 kg for cows) than the wild yak. Yak hair is long and shaggy and is underlain by fine wool. The tail is a long brush, which is unusual for bovines. Yak meat is of secondary importance. Milk and hide products are more important.

2.2 Origins of pork

Because of their rooting habits when foraging, pigs probably produced a dramatic change in the local ecology by reducing woodland undergrowth and allowing grass to grow.  Before the invention of ploughing, pigs may have been driven over seeded ground to embed the seeds.  Pigs may be used to hunt for underground mushrooms (truffles) or to retrieve game, and these habits might have been important to primitive farmers.

Breeds of pigs  In medieval times, herded pigs had a long snout and legs. Around the year 1800, Chinese pigs were introduced into Europe and combined with Sus scrofa.  This resulted in a dramatic phenotypic change as pigs became thick-set in shape, smaller in size and laid down fat earlier in life.

Early development of pig breeds was influenced by factors such as ease of taming, socially structured behaviour, large numbers of offspring at relatively short intervals, early rapid growth and maturation, and longevity.  In the 1800s, the ability of pigs to store large amounts of fat was considered a desirable feature because, before the widespread use of fossil fuel energy for industrial machines, ordinary people expended large amounts of energy in their daily work.  The high caloric content of fat and the high fat content of pork once provided important food energy.  Nowadays, however, there is intensive selection against fatness and in favour of lean muscle development. For the gourmet, however, nothing comes close to fat pork from an old-fashioned pig, especially if it is properly conditioned.

3.3 Origins of lamb

There are many different wild species and domestic breeds of sheep in five main groups;
(1), the moufflon from Mediterranean countries;
(2), urial from southern Russia;
(3), argali from the Himalayas;
(4), bighorn from Canada and eastern Russia; and
(5), domestic sheep, Ovis aries.

Sheep were domesticated at an early stage in the transition from nomad to settled farmer. Goats probably were domesticated before sheep, but the domestication of sheep precedes that of cattle and pigs.  Numerous characteristics have been changed by domestication.  Many wild types of sheep have a wool-hair mixture and, in hot climates, certain species are almost naked.  Wool bearing sheep probably were derived from animals originating in cold or mountain conditions. Domestic sheep show a range from very short to very long tails, but all wild types have short tails.  Some sheep deposit fat in their tails. The lop-eared characteristic is not found in wild sheep and was produced very early during domestication. A convex nose is a striking feature of many breeds of sheep and is associated with a decrease in length of the jaws, which is a common feature in many other domesticated animals such as the pig and dog.  Wild sheep often wield an array of elaborately shaped horns.  During domestication the number has been reduced to a single pair, or horns have been lost altogether (polled). Animals kept in arid, rocky conditions derive an advantage from long legs, while smaller sheep are better for winter housing in colder climates.

3.4 Origin of chicken

The domestic chicken is descended from the Red Jungle Fowl, Gallus gallus. Chicken is used as a generic term in some countries whereas, in others, chickens are categorised by age and type. In France, for example, the age range is from young poussin to the poule, an old fowl. Similarly, in North America, although different breeds usually become anonymous after slaughter, a series of carcass types is defined by age and size.

Rock Cornish are 4 to 5 weeks of age, their carcasses weigh less than about 0.8 kg, and they may be males or females.

Broilers or fryers are about 5 to 8 weeks of age, have carcass weights from  0.8 to 1.8 kg, and may be males or females.

Roasters are males or females older than 9 weeks with carcasses over 1.8 kg.

Capons are castrated males over 9 weeks of age and with carcasses over 1.8 kg. Surgical castration is difficult (because the male gonads are inside the body cavity near the kidneys, as described in LAB 4) and has been replaced by hormonal castration in most countries.

3.4 Origin of ducks

Wild versus domestic ducks. Ducks, geese and swans are grouped together in the Order Anseriformes. Ducks comprise the Family Anatidae. Ducks are poor walkers but good swimmers, which means their legs are set far back in the body and are well muscled. Ducks are hunted extensively for their meat. The main types are the surface-feeding ducks such as the wild mallard (Anas platyrhynchos),  teal and widgeon (Mareca americana); the diving ducks such as the redhead (Aythya americana), canvasback (Aythya valisineria) and ring-necked duck (Aythya collaris); the sea ducks, which seldom provide meat with a pleasant taste; stiff-tailed ducks such as the ruddy duck (Oxyura jamaicensis); and the mergansers, whose meat is seldom palatable.

Two types of ducks have been domesticated and are extensively farmed, these are worth knowing.  The mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) and the Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata). The Muscovy may be identified by its claws (it is able to perch) and a red caruncle or knob between the beak and the eyes. Breast meat from female Muscovies may be tougher, drier and stronger in taste than that from males. The main changes produced by domestication have been to increase growth rates and reduce the colouration of feathers. Carcass conformation is often not much different from a muscular wild duck. Apart from numerous duck breeds of layers and ornamentals, there are many meat breeds around the world. The top ratings might be the Aylesbury in England; the Rouen, Nantes and Barbary in France; and the Long Island in the USA. But this would probably be argued by fanciers of other breeds such as the Blue Swedish, Crested, Pekin, and Black Cayuga. The muscular Muscovy is the winner if meat yield and leanness are the main criteria.

In Canada, ducks are separated into a broiler-fryer category, less than 8 weeks of age, weighing 1.8 to 2.8 kg, either males or females; as distinct from the larger roaster, up to 16 weeks of age, either male or female. In Muscovies, the male is larger than the female. Youthfulness in ducks is detected by softness of the bill, sternal cartilage and trachea.

3.5 Origin of turkeys

History of the word - turkey. Originally, an English turkey-cock was a guinea fowl. Guinea fowl had been introduced from Africa and were a paradigm of showiness, as in Shakespeare’s Twelfth night, “Contemplation makes a rare turkey-cock of him.” With the exploration of North America, the name was applied to the ancestors of the birds we now call turkeys, Meleagris gallopavo.
 The geographical range of wild M. gallopavo is from southern Canada, through the eastern and southern USA, down to Mexico. After the Spanish invasion of Mexico, Mexican strains of M. gallopavo were introduced into Europe where they were gradually improved and assumed the English name of turkey. Thus, when the English and French settled farther north in North America, turkeys (M. gallopavo) were re-introduced as domestic birds which were smaller and more compact than their wild ancestors. Agricultural development then restricted the range of wild turkeys, although they are now successfully conserved in various national parks and protected areas.  In the old days, turkeys were eaten only on special occasions such as Christmas. But turkeys are now eaten every day, partly because of the invention of numerous processed turkey products, ranging from cooked breast meat slices to turkey sausage, and partly because customers have been introduced to a range of relatively small turkey cuts.

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